Fragrance Terms

Aromatic Extraction Techniques in Perfumery

Before perfumed products can be composed, the odorants used in the various perfume compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis. The term "aroma extraction" refers to the extraction of aromatic compounds from raw natural plant materials, using methods such as distillation, solvent extraction, expression, or enfleurage. The results of the extraction are essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. The different methods have been devised to make the extracted material smell as much like the donor plant as possible and to be cost-effective. To a certain extent all of these procedures are damaging: they denature the aromatic compounds, changing their odor profile or even making them totally odorless. This has to do with the materials themselves having so little volatile oil that they do not yield a sufficient crop (lily of the valley and gardenia, for example) or being too delicate to withstand techniques that employ heat, harsh solvents, or exposure to oxygen.

Commercial Extraction Processes

EXPRESSION

Expression is among the oldest methods of fragrance extraction. Aromatic essential oil is produced from plants that are squeezed or compressed, forcing the complete oil out. These oils were first produced in Egypt in unglazed ceramic vases, with the flowers pressed and then buried in the desert for driving out the moisture. The water has a smaller molecular size, so it diffuses through the ceramic vessels, while the larger essential oils do not. The lotus oil in Tutankhamen's tomb, which retained its scent after 3000 years sealed in alabaster vessels, was pressed in this manner. Expression is an especially mild process, historically used in cases where steam distillation would modify or damage the end product. Today the only oils obtained by expression are those from the rinds of citrus fruits, due both to the abundance of aromatics in this squeezable part of the fruit and to the low cost of growing citrus fruits in general. This method is sometimes called cold pressure extraction.


DISTILLATION

Distillation, using an alembic (an alchemical still consisting of two vessels connected by a tube), is an advanced method developed in the Middle Ages and is now a common one, used for rendering a variety of aromatic essences, with the raw material sources being wood, bark, roots, flowers, leaves, seeds, peels, and flowers. In this procedure, a carrier solvent (usually water but sometimes another liquid such as alcohol) is boiled and its steam is passed through the raw material in the still for 60-100 minutes, taking the fragrant substances along with it. After cooling and condensing of the vapor, the essential oil, which floats to the top, is separated from the distillation water in Florentine flasks. The resulting material is still mostly called an essential oil, comprising aromatic and volatile ingredients of the raw material. Several very common essential oils such as peppermint, basil, lavender, rose, palmarosa, geranium, sandalwood, and eucalyptus, are produced in this way. Distillation produces different quality grades of essential oils, making some finer than others. The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds from the raw material after the oil is removed, is called hydrosol and is also sometimes sold. Examples are rose hydrosols and orange blossom hydrosols.

Rectification (also called dry or destructive distillation): The raw materials are directly heated in a still, without a carrier solvent such as water or alcohol, and often in the absence of air. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different compounds and thus different fragrance notes that can be used in perfume compositions. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods, where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" phenolic (tar-like) odor is desired. Examples are birch tar oil and Styrax pyrogenated oil.

Fractional distillation: A prolonged process is used, employing a fractionating column, which renders several grades of the aromatic compound, varying in quality and depth of scent. This allows for greater control of the qualities of the end material produced and is therefore very helpful in allowing manipulation of the effects they have in a fragrance formula. Although the product of fractional distillation is more expensive, this process is sometimes necessary to remove unpleasant or undesirable scents of a material. It is commonly used for ylang-ylang.


SOLVENT EXTRACTION/MACERATION

Organic solvent extraction is the most common and most economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. Commonly used solvents for maceration/solvent extraction include hexane, ethane, and dimethyl ether.

Fragrant compounds from woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this way, as are all aromatics from animal sources (although this is increasingly uncommon due to ethical concerns). The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or are easily denatured by heat. The remaining waxy mass is known as a concrete, which is a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other lipophilic (oil-soluble) plant material. Although highly fragrant, concretes are too viscous - sometimes even solid - at room temperature to be useful. This is due to the presence of high-molecular-weight, nonfragrant waxes and resins. Another solvent, often ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which only dissolves the fragrant low-molecular-weight compounds, must be used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol is removed by a second distillation, leaving behind what is called the absolute. Due to the lower temperatures used in this process, the absolute can be more faithful to the original scent of the raw material than are the products of distillation.

Supercritical fluid extraction: In supercritical fluid extraction, a relatively new method, high pressure carbon dioxide gas (up to 100 atm) is used as a solvent. When carbon dioxide is put under high pressure at slightly above room temperature, a supercritical fluid forms. (Under normal pressure, CO2 changes directly from a solid to a gas in a process known as sublimation.) CO2 in a non-polar compound has low surface tension and wets easily, and it can be used to extract the typically hydrophobic aromatics from the plant material. This process is identical to one of the techniques for making decaffeinated coffee. Like solvent extraction, CO2 extraction takes place at a low temperature, extracts a wide range of compounds, and leaves the aromatics unaltered by heat, producing an essence that is very faithful to the original. Since CO2 is a gas at normal atmospheric pressure, it also leaves no trace of itself in the final product, thus allowing one to get the absolute directly without having to deal with a concrete. Extracts produced using this process are known as CO2 extracts.


INFUSION

Water maceration produces an infusion, a familiar term from tisanes/herbal teas and a comparable technique. The plant material is submerged in hot water (or alcohol or oil) and left to marinate (steep) for a period of time, yielding its aromatic properties. Then the plant is removed with a strainer and the water remaining is called an infusion. The process of infusion is distinct from decoction, which involves boiling the plant material, or percolation, in which the water passes through the material (as in a coffeemaker). Infusion is a very simple chemical process used with botanicals that are highly volatile and dissolve readily or release their active ingredients easily in the liquid. The botanicals are typically dried herbs, flowers or berries.


DECOCTION

Decoction is a method of extraction by boiling out dissolved chemicals from mashed plant material, which may include stems, roots, bark, and rhizomes. Decoction produces liquids with differing chemical properties than those of infusion because the temperature/preparation difference results in more oil-soluble chemicals in decoction than in infusion. Decoction is also the name for the resulting liquid.


ENFLEURAGE

Enfleurage is a famous but now antiquated process, prized in years past for its capacity to capture the mature, deep aroma of delicate flowers, such as jasmine or tuberose, that lost their precious aromatic bouquet in high-heat distillation. Enfleurage in the original French means to “impregnate with the scent of flowers.” It is also defined as “extracting perfumes by exposing inodorous oils or fats to the exhalations of flowers.”

The technique uses animal fat (deodorized lard or tallow) as a waxy 'dress' for the flowers, allowing them to macerate for days on large glass plates in wooden frames. Fresh produce was added to the point of fragrance saturation. The fragrant fat 'pomade' was then washed with ethanol to render an 'absolute de chassis.' Two variations of the technique existed: 'cold' enfleurage, perfected in the 19th century and using no external heat, and 'hot' enfleurage, in which the fat was gently heated while the botanical matter was stirred into the fat.

This technique is not commonly used any longer in the perfume industry, due both to its prohibitive labor intensity and cost and to the existence of newer, more efficient extraction methods such as solvent extract and supercritical fluid extraction.
 
Incense

Incense (from Latin: incendere, "to burn") is composed of aromatic biotic materials which release fragrant smoke when burned. It is used in religious ceremonies, ritual purification, aromatherapy, meditation, for creating a mood, and for masking bad odors. The exact origin of incense cannot be traced, but ancient writings provide insight into how religions and cultures of old used the aroma of burning herbs, flowers, tree leaves and other natural sources in their spiritual practices. The common use of incense may have originated in ancient Egypt, where gum resins and oleo gum resins of aromatic trees were imported from the Arabian and Somali coasts to be used in religious ceremonies. When the tomb of Tutankhamun was found, archeologists discovered oils, perfumes, and incense around his mummified body. Incense relics that are thousands of years old have been found all over the world.

When referring to burned materials, the term 'incense' refers to the substance itself, rather than to the odor that it produces. But in perfumery, the word means a complex aromatic fragrance blend that generally contains wood and spice elements, most commonly frankincense. In the darker register of oriental fragrances, for instance, frankincense, with its suggestion of green stems and leaves, lends a soft glow and buoyant lift to accords of spices, vanilla, and patchouli; the luminous quality of some of these fragrances is derived from the manner in which their spicy floral notes are modulated by the balsamic dryness of incense. Incense mixes contain both cold and warm elements: a citrusy, peppery top note and a dark, balsamic finish. Although this contrast is dramatic, the overall character is serene and calming. Although incense often tends to be associated with heavy, dark, smoky fragrances, it actually is a common note in many fresh citrus and green fragrances.

Early incense contained nothing more than a few ground herbs, plant gums, and honey, but the preparations have become much more complex and varied. Fragrance materials found in incense today include woods and barks (agarwood, cedaar, cyprus, sandalwood, juniper, cassia), seeds and fruits, (star anise, nutmeg, juniper berries, coriander, vanilla), resins and gums (benzoin, copal, frankincense, myrrh, labdanum, dragon's blood, mastic, storax, galbanum, elemi, opoponax, tlu balsam, choya loban, copahu, guggul, sandarac, kauri gum, amber), roots and rhizomes (vetiver, orris, jatamansi, calamus, galangal, costus), leaves (patchouli, sage, bay, tea), and flowers and buds (rose, clove, lavender, saffron). The materials that are used most often now in the making of incense for fragrances are borneol camphor, benzoin, frankincense, makko powder, tolu balsam, myrrh, labdanum, opoponax, and white Indian sandal powder. There can be various combinations of substances used to create differing tone accords, such as woody, floral, herbal, spicy, or resinous.

Well-known incense perfumes for men and women include Tauer Incense Rose and Incense Extreme; Amouage Tribute and Lyric Man; Czech & Speake Frankincense & Myrrh and No. 88; Gucci Pour Homme; Heeley Cardinal; Comme des Garçons Black, Kyoto, Avignon, and Ouarzazate; Armani Privé Bois D'Encens; Creed Himalaya; Dupont Signature; Cacheral Nemo; Azzaro Visit; Givenchy Xeryus; Perfum d'Empire Wazamba; Serge Lutens Fille en Aiguilles and De Profundis; Donna Karan Black Cashmere and Chaos; Annick Goutal Encens Flamboyant; Aedes de Venustas; Yves St. Laurent Nu; L'Artisan Seville a l'Aube and Passage d'Enfer; Kilian Incense Oud; Atelier Cologne Bois Blonds; Hermès Eau de Gentiane Blanche; Chanel No. 22; Aesop Mystra; Etro Shaal Nur; Norma Kamli Incense; Carlos Santana for Men; Montale Full Incense; l'Occitane en Provence Eau des Baux; and Jovoy Paris La Lithurgie des Heures.
 
'Dry' and 'Powdery' in Perfumery

In perfumery, the term 'dry' dates to the 1930s, when couturier Jean Patou created a cocktail bar where men could drink and talk while their women companions shopped. Subsequently he decided that this could be conveted into a perfume bar, and his perfumer, Henri Alméas, was instructed to create 'cocktail' fragrances: Cocktail, Cocktail Dry, Cocktail Sweet, and Cocktail Bitter Sweet.

'Dry' is the term for a woody, masculine odor effect in perfume products that is the opposite of a 'sweet' effect (as in wines). It is achieved through the use of ingredients such as woods, mosses, and herbs that provide a drying sensation and of formate group aroma chemicals. Dry scents are usually provided by woods such as cedar, certain grasses such as vetiver, rhizomes (orris/iris), phemols (essences such as birch tar, guiacwood, and leathery compounds), and mosses like oakmoss and treemoss). Dry fragrances do not have dewy, watery elements that suggest vegetation, tending to be more mineral-like and providing a solid sense to the nose. A dry element is particularly useful in fresh daytime fragrance mixes.

'Powdery' as a fragrance tone sometimes can be considered a subcategory of 'dry.' It is a somewhat musky, opaque, or hazy effect produced by the interaction of mossy, wwody, sweet, and crystalline elements. Yet a powdery element can at times take on either sweet or dry nuances according to manipulation by the perfumer, with the sweeter types hinting at a feminine smell rather than the traditional masculine one. Usually the distinction is between 'face powder' (sweeter) and 'talcum powder' (drier). Face powder notes generally are more refined and have a vintage, perfume-like trail, while talcum powder tones are simpler, usually involving a vanillic/balsamic background combined with geranium and/or ylang ylang, recalling the lemon-lavender-vanilla accord of Johnson's Baby Powder. A baby powder scent effect is sometimes produced when a heavier sweet or woody note is blended with a lighter citrus, fruity, or green note, similar to the result of mixing vanilla with lemon in a sorbet. Ambery ingredients are often involved in giving a powdery effect, and these include opoponax gum, heliotropin, vanilla, and some musks. But 'powderiness' can also be provided by orris'iris, certain aldehydes, and mosses. Old style face powders often contained Evernia prunastri, which is oakmoss. Many perfumes leave an overall powdery impression after evaporation of the floral ingredients.

Modern face powder-smelling fragrances include Hermès 24 Faubourg, Ombre Rose by Jean-Charles Brosseau, No.19 by Chanel, Patou's discontinued Normandie, Creed Fleurs de Bulgarie, Jolie Madame by Balmain, Coriandre by Jean Couturier, and Ma Griffe by Carven. Talcum or baby-powdery fragrances are represented by Petits et Mamans by Bulgari, Cashmere Mist by Donna Karan, and Flower by Kenzo.

Some powdery fragrances for men are Dior Homme, Lorenzo Villoresi Musk, Bulgari Blu pour Homme, Zizanie, Lagerfeld Classic, Royal Copenhagen, Santa Maria Novella Melograno, Amouage Gold, Passage d'Enfer, Five Star Royal Secret, Rive Gauche, Knize Ten, Escada Magnetism,
and Dana Canoe.
 
Headspace Technology

Headspace technology is a method pioneered in the 1970s and 1980s of "capturing" scent molecules and reconstructing their smell for perfumes. A belljar-like apparatus is placed over the scented object and the aromatic compound molecules, such as fatty acid derivatives, benzenoids, and isoprenoids, are extracted and saved.

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Once they're analyzed, a synthetic version can be created. This is how fragrances that are hard to distill or do not lend themselves well to other extraction methods, like gardenia, rose, or lily of the valley, and notes like dirt, such as that in Demeter's Dirt perfume, are created. The various perfume manufacturers have their own fragrance capture systems based on this technology, examples being ScentTrek (Givaudan), Aromascope (Takasago), and NaturePrint (Firmenich). Similar techniques also have been used to analyze and recreate the interesting scents of particular locations and environments such as tea shops, classrooms, and sawmills. Headpace technology extends the perfumers' pallette, even providing them with new and unique scent "profiles" from nature, such as the mineral-filled smell of freshly rain-soaked cobblestones, pure air in the high mountains, washed laundry drying in the wind, the odor of hot dust from a lightbulb, or burned rubber (for the race car enthusiast).

The headspace equipment involves a hollow dome or sphere-like object, which forms an airtight seal over the target object. Inert gases are passed into the space, or a vacuum is created, so that the odor compounds are removed from the headspace. The compounds are then captured using a variety of techniques, including cold surfaces, solvent traps, and adsorbent materials. The sample is then analyzed with gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

One of the early pioneers of this technology is Roman Kaiser, a Swiss fragrance chemist. Since 1968, Kaiser has been working at Givaudan, in Dübendorf near Zürich, the world's largest flavor and fragrance company. His main research activity centers around analysis and reconstitution of natural scents for use in perfumery, and he been using headspace technology for this purpose since 1975. His recent work has been focused on the plants of the canopy and understory layers of tropical rainforests, allowing reconstitution of scents of endangered plant species there.

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There is a common misconception that natural perfumes are safer than and superior to synthetic aromas. But synthetic chemicals have been used in perfumery for almost acentury without consumers being able to detect the differences. In fact, synthetic chemicals are often less volatile, and more stable, than natural chemicals whose smell changes over time. And certain plants are so rare that it is prohibitively costly for companies to harvest them for their smell. In addition, a synthetic copy of a scent often can be less complex and thus easier to use in mixes than the naturally occurring compound. And finally, over-harvesting of perfume plant sources and environmental care are becoming increasing concerns and have an effect on consumer demand and manufacturing processes.

In the 1971 cult classic movie "Harold and Maude," the eccesntric octogenarian character (played by Ruth Gordon) takes the young, death-obsessed character Harold (Bud Cort) back to her house and shows him her "odorifics" machine, a kind of recorder of smells. Says Maude, "Then I became infatuated with these, my odoriics. Give the nose a treat, I thought, a kind of olfactory bandwidth. So I began first tiwh the easiest: roast beef, old books, mown grass. And Mexican farmyard. Here's one you'll like, Snowfall on 42nd Street." Maude gives Harold a face-mask attached to a tube that runs from the machine and provides him with the captured smells: subway, perfume, cigarettes, and snow. An precursor of headspace technology!

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You have made me want to find this film, a well written post.
 
You have made me want to find this film, a well written post.

Thanks. I think folks tend to love or hate that movie. I really liked it a lot the first time I saw it, in my rebellious younger years, then disliked it when I re-watched it some years later. I suspect that I would like it once again now if I watched it a third time in the autumn of my years.
 
Oud/Agarwood

Oud (sometimes spelled oudh), the Arabic word for wood, usually refers in perfumery to wood from the Agar (Aquilaria or Gyrinops) tree, an evergreen genus native to southeast Asia. It is sometimes called agar, aloeswood, gaharu, jinko, or ligne-aloes. When attacked by a common fungus (Phaeoacremonium parasitica) that decomposes its bark and branches, this tree produces an aromatic resin. The resinous agarwood occurs in the trunk and roots of the trees, where the volatile organic compounds it contains appear to suppress or retard the fungal growth. While the unaffected wood of the tree is a light, pale beige in color, the resin markedly increases the density and mass of the affected wood over the course of decades, changing its color to dark brown or black. Since only about 2-7% of trees are infected naturally by the fungus, artificial forestry methods are often used to inoculate all the trees in a chosen area with the fungus.

Natural oud products vary widely in quality depending upon geographical location, botanical species, age of the tree, and the section of the tree from which the source piece of agarwood is taken. The highest quality agarwood comes from the tree's natural immune response, while an inferior resin is produced by deliberate wounding of the tree. Once the resin is developed, it is only good for harvesting for a few months, after which the essential oil cells dry out.

Oud oil is steam-distilled from the agarwood, producing up to 20 ml of pure oil from each 70 kg of heartwood. Agarwood oil is very complex, with over 150 different compounds identified to date. Extremely expensive to obtain (costing more than $60,000 per kilogram) and considered endangered in the wild due to overharvesting, the oil has been replaced for the most part in modern products by synthetic substitutes (such as Oud Synthetic 10760E by Firmenich and Agarwood Orpur by Givaudan). There are claims that Chinese factories produce very fragrant but fake scents made of the very low-grade agarwood soaked for about a month in European synthetic oud.

Overall, oud has an animalic, earthy, oriental-woody, soft fruit-floral tone that is usually complex and dark, making it a good base for men's colognes. It has nutty, musty-earthy undertones. It is intense and pungent, and lower grades can be quite sharp. When burned in incense, it also is characterized by a sweet-balsamic note with touches of vanilla, musk, and amber. Oud is often used as a backnote for other scents in modern fragrance mixes. It pairs well with traditional oriental notes, such as rose and vanilla, as well as with modern amber and hesperidic (bright citrus) notes. Oud generally produces strong emotional responses, positive or negative. “Oud is astonishingly rare,” says Chandler Burr, the former New York Times perfume critic and author of 'The Emperor of Scent.' “It has a very particular scent, and there is nothing like it on the market. It is dark, rich and opaque.”

The scent is an ancient one that has been used in incense and perfumes for thousands of years in the Middle East and Asia, both in homes and in religious ceremonies. The International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Life Sciences states that agarwood, also known as the 'Wood of the Gods,' is mentioned as early as the third century AD in Chinese literature. Agarwood has also been used as a medicinal product, dating back at least to the eighth century.

Oud has been getting more popular in the West over the past few years. Sales of oud perfumes are strong within the niche prestige fragrance market, which is valued at over $3 billion. A 2013 report stated that total oud sales had increased by 68% over 5 years. About two-thirds of oud scents are artisanal, according to the NPD Group. Well-known commercial fragrances with prominent oud notes include:

Acqua di Parma Colonia Oud
Amouage Homage Attar
Amouage Jubilation XXV
Anya's Garden Temple
Arabian Oud range
Armani Prive 1001 Nights Collection Oud Royal
Ayesha Ziya The Oud
By Kilian Pure Oud and Rose Oud
Byredo Oud Immortel
Christian Dior Leather Oud and Oud Ispahan
Commes des Garçons Wonderoud
Creed Royal Oud
Czech & Speake Dark Rose
Donna Karan Chaos
Ermenegildo Zegna Indonesian Oud
Guerlain Oud Sensuel
Henri Bendel Rose & Oud
Jo Malone Oud and Bergamot
John Varvatos Oud
Krigler Oud for Highness 75
L'Artisan Parfumeur Al Oudh
Le Labo Oud 27 and Rose 31
Maison Francis Kurkdjian Oud Silk Mood, Velvet Mood, and Cashmere Mood
Montale oudh range
Ormonde Jayne Ormonde Man
Ralph Lauren Polo Supreme Oud
Reiss Black Oudh
Secret Oud and Oud de Caron
Serge Lutens Cuir Mauresque
Tom Ford Noir de Noir and Oud Wood
Yves Saint Laurent M7 Oud Absolu and Splendid Wood
 
I have mixed feelings about nuavia blu. I wonder how a pro scent description of it looks like. how a description will affect my impression? It won't. I just want to put words to my olfactory impressions.
 
Leather


What does the term 'leather' mean in perfumery? Does it mean the smell of leather material itself? Or does it refer to fragrances that suggest the environment in which one finds leather? Or is it something else?

Some authors suggest that it means a fragrance type that resembles the sweet, pungent, animalic smokiness characteristic of the ingredients use in the process of tanning leathers, achieved through use of castoreum, labdanum, and synthetic chemicals. Others argue that it is a fragrance tone suggesting hay, leather itself, the manure and dirt of wood stalls, the odor of urine (used to make leather pliable), and the rich, earth scent of horses themselves. Leather perfumes, whether natural or synthetically derived, can have several accord variables and satisfy different interpretations, which makes the overall perception and definition of 'leather' variable and somewhat confusing. This is further complicated by the modern addition of a 'suede' note, a synthetic slightly salty tone. In terms of imitation of the actual scent of leather itself, there is also the question of differentiation among the different animals producing the leather hides: cowhide smells quite different than horseside or pighide, for example. And many people detect vague gasoline impressions from leather perfumes, which appears to be due to their methods of production.

Leather in perfumery is sometimes defined as a subdivision of the chypre family, but with added fougère and oriental tones. However, the Société Française des Parfumeurs puts it in its own separate family, Category G, which is subdivided into true leathers (G1), floral leathers (G2, usually with touches of iris or violet), and tobacco leathers (G3, with smoky, woody, and blond tobacco notes). And modern perfume classifications seem generally to be following this trend, although some people divide leather scents into Russian ones (inspired by the sharp odors of military garments) and Spanish ones (characterized more by the essence of herbs, flowers, and fruits). Probably the best known leather fragrances are those of the Cuir de Russie family. The word 'cuir' has French origins and is derived from the latin word corium for leather or hide.

Historically, leather is one of the oldest basic notes in perfumery, dating to a French Guild of Glovers (Gantiers et Parfumeurs) that was incorporated in 1268 and became well known for scenting the leather gloves of the aristocracy, especially in the 16th century. Guild members used pleasantly scented essences to mask the unappealing odor of newly tanned leather, which was redolent of curing materials such as urine and dung. In Italy, frangipani was used for scenting, in Spain it was camphor and ambergris, and in France orange blossom, violet, iris, and musk were preferred. In addition to providing a way to overpower the residual odors of leather curing, the essences used to scent gloves were employed as a way to bring something pleasant to the nose when one crossed the streets of the time, which were in fact open sewers transporting human and animal waste to rivers and ultimately to the sea. The Gantiers, as they were called, were given a place in the Six Corps, which were the six most powerful manufacturing societies of that time and which had preferential access to expensive raw products from overseas. Leather was primarily produced in the tanneries of Montpellier and those of its economic rival, Grasse.

Catherine de Medici (1519-1589), Queen of France from 1547 to 1559 and mother of three kings, took her favorite perfumer, René le Florentin, with her when she left Italy to marry Henri, Duc d'Orleans. In addition to his perfumes, he devised special toxic mixes for her to use to dispose of her enemies, including the one that scented the gloves with which she poisoned Jeanne d'Albert, mother of Henry IV. René eventually became the first perfumer to open a commercial shop in Paris. Catherine also sent for a Florentine perfumer, Tomarelli, and had him work in Grasse, renowned for its flowers, instructing him to capture their scents in perfumed essences. One of his products was the famous gloves called Gants à la Frangipane, named after a Roman family of the 12th century and using leather odorized with fresh jasmine flowers fixed with civet and musk. From these gloves came the term 'frangipani.'

The first officially documeted leather scent, still available today, was Creed Royal English Leather, worn by King George III. It was created as a body fragrance at the request of the king because he was very fond of the smell of scented leather gloves.



Natural Materials

Birch - Traditionally used in tanneries in Northern Europe, and especially in Russia and Finland, its bark produces tar and resin with an intensely wintergreen and tar-like odor that has been used frequently in Cuir de Russie type scents. For a soft deer leather smell, the birch scent is dissolved in vanilla or floral notes. Birch is often used in Russian leather perfumes.

Juniper and cade oil - Cade is a dark viscous oil produced when juniper trees are burned, possessing a smoky aroma reminiscent of forest campfires. It also has been used in Cuir de Russie scents along with birch. It has mold-suppressing properties and has been used for binding leather books to prevent deterioration.

Styrax - Liquidambar trees, from both Central America and Asia Minor, produce a sapwood (styrax) when their bark is pounded. An essence derived from the sapwood by vacuum distillation or use of volatile solvents is used to give a leather undertone which is sweeter than that of birch.

Cassie - The bark of the cassie tree, a tree in the mimosa family, as well as an absolute from its flowers, are used for giving a deep, intense leather note to perfumes.

Castoreum - This secretion from the glands of beavers, a by-product of the fur industry in Russia and Canada, has a very intense and repulsive odor when concentrated but provides a desirable dry leathery scent and fixative properties when highly diluted. It is prized for smelling like real leather.

Myrtle - Although it can produce a leather note (and is used in tanneries for curing hides) and is infrequently used, myrtle has a camphoreous, green tone that makes it not a preferred choice.

Cistus labdanum - This can give a more smoky/ambery leather note when such is desired for a perfume background.

These natural factors are especially good at rendering leather notes when they are combined with other essences such as black tea, patchouli, or tobacco.


Synthetics

Synthetic materials giving leathery notes in perfumery appeared in the 1880s with the discovery of quinolones, a family of aroma chemicals that were then used early in the 20th century in the production of modern Cuir de Russie scents such as Chanel Cuir de Russie, Caron Tabac Blond, Lanvin Scandal, and Piguet Bandit. The chemical name of the quinolone ingredient primarily used is 4-(2-methylpropyl) quinolone, commonly called isobutyl quinolone. Used in a concentration of 1% or less, it has a strong odor profile described as ambery, woody, and tobacco-like, as well as earthy, rooty, and nutty, similar in some ways to oakmoss and vetiver.

Another newer synthesized note is the suede accord, much more subtle and less aggressive than that of the quinolones. Suggestive of velours, it has been used in perfumes such as Lutens Daim Blond andDonna Karan.

Less often used is safraleine, an aroma chemical present in isolates of saffron that gives a smell combining elements of shoe polish, black cherry, and air conditioning/refrigeration fluid.

Aldehydes are also used in leather perfumes to balance and smooth the composition.


Well known leather perfumes/colognes/aftershaves for men include the folowing:

Acca Kappa 1869; Acqua di Parma Colonia Leather; Adidas Dare; Amouage Memoir Man; Antonio Banderas Diavolo Club; Atkinsons The Excelsior Bouquet; Aubusson Homme; Avon Black Suede Leather, Infinite Seduction, and Urban Edge; Axe Instinct; Baldessarini Private Affairs; Bond No. 9 Dubai Emerald; Bvlgari Man in Black "All Black"; Burberry Brit Rhythm; Byredo Baudelaire and Accord Oud; Carolina Herrera Men Prive; Cerruti L'Essence; Choppard 1000 Miglia Extreme and 1927 Vintage Edition; Christian Dior Homme Parfum and La Collection Couturier Parfumeur Leather Oud; Coach Leatherware series; Crabtree & Evelynn Sienna; Creed Royal English Leather; D.R. Harris Windsor; Davidoff Leather Blend; Dolce & Gabbana Velvet Exotic Leather and Velvet Wood; Donna Karan Men Summer 2014; English Leather; Floris Mahon Leather; G.F. Trumper Spanish Leather; Giorgio Armani Prive Cuir Majeste and Cuir Noir; Givenchy Cuir Blanc; Guerlain Cuir Beluga, Cuir de Russie, Derby, and Habit Rouge Rider Edition; Hermes Cuir d'Ange and Eau d'Hermes; Houbigant Duc de Vervins; Jack Black Signature Black Mark; Jean Patou Pour Homme; John Varvatos Dark Rebel Rider and JV Platinum Edition; Knize Ten; Marbert Man No. 2; Maurer & Wirtz GranValor Tabac; Missoni Uomo; Molinard Cuir; Montale Aoud Cuir d'Arabie; Oscar de la Renta Pour Lui; Paco Rabanne 1 Million Absolutely Gold and Black XS; Perry Ellis for Men Original and PE Red; Pierre Cardin Centaure Cuire Etalon, Enigme, and Collection Cuir Intense; Ralph Lauren Polo Supreme Leather; Robert Piguet Knightsbridge; Roberta Andrade Tabac Blanc; Santa Maria Novella Nostalgia; Serge Lutens Boxeuses and Cuir Mauresque; The Crown Perfumery Eau de Russe; Tom Ford Neroli Portofino Forte and Tuscan Leather; Truefitt & Hill Spanish Leather; Valentino Uomo; Versace L'Homme; and Yves St. Laurent Noble Leather.
 
Mastic


Mastic (also called lentisque), a plant resin from a small shrubby tree (Pistacia lentiscus) found almost exlusively on the southern part of the Greek island of Chios, is a rare ingredient in perfumery, particularly as the most prominent note in a fragrance. A hard, brittle, bitter green or yellow resin, it is derived by sun drying from the transparent ‘tears' of liquid mastic produced from incisions in the trees. There is a legend that as St. Isodore of Chios cried out in pain during his martyrdom, God blessed the mastic tree, which then began to cry its tears.

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Mastic was used as a remedy for snakebite in ancient Greece and burned in North Africa as an incense. It also has been used medicinally for a large number of body disorders, especially stomach problems, as a seasoning in Turkey and Egypt, as a liqueur, candy, and pastry flavoring, and as a varnish. The oil from the seeds is called shina oil and is used for cooking. Mastic resin has been used as a kind of chewing gum, becoming soft and bright opaque white when chewed. In pharmacies and nature shops it is called arabic gum and Yemen gum.

Similar to pine, cedar, and olibanum, the complex smell of mastic is clean, balsamic, dry, lemony, and crisp, somewhat reminiscent of a fresh morning forest. It provides a sharp and pungent top note and a deep, smoky dry down to fragrance mixes, especially citrus and lavender-fougere colognes, and it has good fixative properties. It blends well with various herbs, frankincense, black pepper, coconut, tonka bean, vanilla, blood orange, carnation, violet, lavender, rose, juniper, and cedarwood.

The essential oil used in perfumery is produced by steam distillation or alcohol extraction of the resin and also of the leaves of the tree. It is a relatively expensive ingredient.

Mastic or lentisque perfumes include:

Annick Goutal Ninfeo Mio and Encens Flamboyant
Maurer & Wirtz 4711 Wunderwasser Elixir
Floris Soulle Ambar
Hussein Chalayan Green Comme des Garcons
Tom Ford Noir Extreme and Costa Azzurra
Acqua di Parma Blue Mediterraneo - Mirto di Panarea
Calvin Klein Reveal Men
John Varvatos Artisan Acqua
Davidoff Cool Water Night Dive
Aramis Black Aramis
Faena Mastic Tree Artisan Aftershave
Queen B French Mastic
Phaedon Lentisque
Baruti Berlin im Winter and Indigo
Sisley Eau d'Ikar
 
Aromatic and Herbaceous

The term 'aromatic' is sometimes used, especially by laymen, to refer to the assertive, fresh fragrance produced by sweet balsamic and resinous green-herbal notes, such as that of pure lavender essence. But strictly speaking, it means an organic compound with a benzene (or arene) hydrocarbon ring structure. The name was originally given to these compounds, before their chemical structure was known, because of their somewhat sweet scent. Aromatic notes are not typically syrupy sweet, but are not at all bitter either. Aromatic compositions are most typically found in fragrances for men.

Herbaceous aromatic materials pair quite well with citruses and spices, in that way lending themselves to fragrances for women as well as unisex perfumes, in addition to the better known masculine ones. Lavender is the prototypical aromatic substance and is used very commonly in perfumery. With its pleasant association with the outdoors and cleanliness, it is a mainstay of the fougère/fern family and frequently is combined with ferny smells with which it has overlapping qualities. The term 'aromatic fougère' is used especially with masculine fragrances, forming a subclassification typified by heavier use of cool, refreshing herbal top notes. Yves Saint Laurent Rive Gauche pour Homme is the perfect example of this genre.

Aromatic accents are used with classic cologne-like notes, providing a somewhat sharper, tonic scent such as that of the 4711 Acqua Colonia series, and are also used to provide a contrasting brightness with darker resinous notes such as incense, as is found in Serge Lutens Encens et Lavande.

In addition to lavender, herbal contributors of aromatic-green camphorous notes, frequently used together in combination, include rosemary and sage, present for example in the top notes of Dior Eau Sauvage, Caron pour Un Homme, and Guerlain Habit Rouge, as well as cumin, mugwort, star anise, and other plants with a very intensive grassy-spicy scent. Examples include artemisia, basil, estragon, marjoram, peppermint, tea, and tobacco.

Other well-known fragrance products with a prominent aromatic nature include:

Acca Kappa White Moss
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo series
Alfred Dunhill Pure
Alt-Innsbruck Eau de Cologne
Amouage Sunshine Men
Annick Goutal Eau de Lavande
Aramis A, Black, and New West for Him
Atkinsons Rockford and Sport Blue Sky
Aubusson Man in Blue
Azzaro Aqua Verde and Pour Homme LE 2014
Baruti Berlin Im Winter
Borsari Acqua della Macchia Mediterranea
Brooks Brothers New York for Gentlemen
Burberry Summer for Men
Bvlgari Eau Parfumee au The Bleu
By Kilian Moonlight in Heaven
Calvin Klein Eternity Summer and Reveal Men
Caron Pour Un Homme
Caswell Massey Michelsen's Bay Rum
Christian Dior Fahrenheit Summer 2006 and Eau Sauvage
Claus Porto Agua de Colonia No. 4 Spearmint Tea
Coty Gravity series
Crabtree & Evelyn Black Absinthe
Creed Silver Mountain Water
Davidoff Cool Water Freeze Me
Flamboyant Royal White
Floris Lavender
Giorgio Armani Code Ice and Diamonds Summer Fraiche
Givenchy Insense series
Hermes Eau de Gentiane Blanche
Jil Sander Ultrasense
Kenneth Cole Blue and New York Men
Marbert Man Personality
Masaki Matsushima M
Maurer & Wirtz 4711 series
Paco Rabanne Ultraviolet series and XS Sensual Summer
Paul Sebastian Fine Cologne
Penhaligon's Douro and Lavandula
Perry Ellis 360 Degrees and Portfolio Green
Pierre Cardin Vertige
Ralph Lauren Polo Red White & Blue
Roger & Gallet L'Homme
St. Charles Shave Bulgarian Lavender
Santa Maria Novella lavanda Imperiale, Porcellana, Potpourri
Serge Lutens Laine de Verre
Taylor of Old Bond Street Luxury Lavender Water
The Body Shop White Musk
Tom Ford Lavender Palm
Truefitt & Hill 1805
Yves St. Laurent Kouros Eau d'Ete 2006

The term 'herbaceous' often is used more broadly to refer to components derived from or reminiscent of herbal plants in general, which produce a naturally cool, dry, leafy, or hay-like note, such as chamomile, lavender, rosemary, or clary sage. The term 'grassy' is used to refer to a similar but different green, sharp tone like the scent of a freshly mowed lawn or crushed green leaves. Examples include the fragrances of Balmain Vent Vert and L'Artisan Premier Figuier. It should be noted, however, that 'herbaceous' and 'grassy' are not exactly the same as 'aromatic.' Purely herbaceous or grassy materials typically are cool (and especially produce that sensation when blotted and pressed to the lips), while more characteristically aromatic substances tend to be spicy and warm.
 
Indole

The term indole comes from a combination of the words 'indigo' and 'oleum,' because the chemical substance named indole was first isolated in 1866 by treatment of indigo dye with oleum (oil). Indole (also called benzopyrrole) is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound which contains a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered nitrogen-containing pyrrole ring. Indole is a colorless to yellow solid at room temperature but has a low melting point temperature (126.5 degrees F).

Indole is found naturally in some floral derivatives, such as jasmine, tuberose, honeysuckle, ylang ylang, gardenia, and orange blossom, and it is produced by bacteria as a degradation product of the amino acid tryptophan in animal digestive tracts. The flower substances most closely associated with indole are jasmine and tuberose. It also occurs in coal tar, which is its main industrial source, with the indole fraction steam distilled, although it also can be synthesized via a variety of methods.

Indoles smell floral at low concentrations, but fecal at high concentrations (such as in animal waste). It is thought that this is because when a scent arrives at the nose in high concentration, it binds to a wider range of receptors; too much scent activates the receptors associated with bad smells, while a small amount binds to only a few more acceptable pleasant scent receptors. However, it is mainly the combination of indole with humidity and certain musky compounds that produces the putrid smell. Pure indole does not really smell of feces in isolation. By themselves, the pure white crystals of indole have a musty, stale, mothball smell that is reminiscent of mild decay. In commercial scents, the term 'indolic' usually means that a fragrance has an overripe or animalic characteristic. Indole adds a warm depth to perfumes, opulent, "heady," and rich, and sometimes actually clean/fresh.

Indoles are used widely in perfumery, very rarely naturally, but primarily in synthetic form. Natural jasmine essence, as used in the perfume industry, contains about 2.5% pure indole and is dark and narcotic in character, giving a full, lush, and voluptuous effect in the finished fragrance compound. However, since 1 kg of natural jasmine oil requires the processing of several million jasmine flower blossoms and costs around $10,000, jasmine indole is usually used in the form of synthetic jasmine oil for perfumery, costing around $10 per kg. The genuine flower extract is still used occasionally, but only in tiny amounts and in very expensive perfumes.

Indole is also used in making tryptophan for human dietary use and in making indoleacetic acid, a hormone that promotes root development in plant cuttings for gardening. In addition, it is used to create chocolate, coffee, and fruity accords in flavorings for food products.

Indolic commercial perfume fragrances include:

Eau Sauvage
Carnal Flower
Charogne
Mario Valentino Ocean Rain
Serge Lutens A La Nuit and Sarrasins
Chanel Cristalle
By Killian Love & Tears
L'Artisan Parfumeur La Chasse Aux Papillons
Montale Jasmine Full
Gucci Eau de Parfum
Annick Goutal Songes and Néroli
Jo Malone Orange Blossom
Diptyque Olene
Jean Patou Joy
Bal à Versailles
Bruno Acampora Jasmin
Carthusia Fiori di Capri
Antonia Flowers
AbdesSalaam Attar Tawaf
Amouage Tribute
Saffron James Nani
Gandhara
Penhaligon's Castile and Amaranthine
Guerlain Aqua Allegoria Flora Nerolia
Galimard Rafting
Krigler Juicy Jasmine
Jardin du Nil
Hermes Eau d'Hermes
Calvin Klein Eternity and Escape
Fabergé Brut
 
Bitter Orange: Neroli, Petitgrain, Orange Blossom, and Bigarade


The tree from which these fragrance materials are derived is Citrus aurantium (or bigaradier) var. amara, commonly called the bitter orange tree (also known as the 'Seville orange tree' due to the fact that the city of Seville has many of them and because the city was the center of Moorish culture when the trees were first brought into Europe from Arabia in the 9th century). Perfumers call it the 'pig of perfumery' because nearly every part of the tree provides a useful material.

Bitter orange trees, native to Italy, belong in a unique order that bears fruit while at the same time blossoming. It is an evergreen tree which grows up to 10 meters tall and has thick, glossy leaves and thorns. The orange-colored fruit rind covers a very bitter flesh which is suited in the culinary world solely for marmalade or other 'spoon sweets' and as a more minor flavoring ingredient. The fruits only turn their characteristic bright colour in a temperate Mediterranean climate: Spain, Greece, and California; those growing in hotter tropical climates, such as Florida, Egypt, Ghana, eastern Africa, and western India, retain a yellow-green tinge. The trees are also grown commercially in France and even in the Himalayas.

Individual processing methods of the tree parts produce different fragrance materials: neroli, orange blossom absolute, biagarade, and petitgrain. Cold-pressing the fruit peel yields bigarade, the essential oil (or 'zest') of the bitter orange; distilling the twigs produces petitgrain (the same method giving petitgrain from other citrus trees, such as lemon petitgrain and lime petitgrain). Steam distillation of the white blossoms provides neroli, while the same flowers can yield orange blossom absolute when treated with solvents to extract their essence. If the leaves, twigs and flowers are distilled together, the result is a combination, "petitgrain sur le fleur." Petitgrain water absolute or eau de brouts is the equivalent of orange flower water absolute and is obtained as a by-product from petitgrain bigarade oil. It enhances the 'naturalness' of other fragrances such as jasmine, neroli, ylang-ylang, and gardenia. It should be remembered that the different bitter orange materials are often used combined together in different proportions in commercial fragrances, the differing balances producing quite different characters.

The individual bitter orange materials:

Neroli
At the end of the 17th century, Anne Marie Orsini (Anna Maria de la Tremoille), duchess of Bracciano and princess of Nerola, Italy, introduced the essence of bitter orange tree as a fashionable fragrance by using it to perfume her wardrobe, her gloves, and her bath. She is said to have been first person to distill orange flowers to produce the essential oil. Today neroli is one of the most widely used floral oils in perfumery. Its nontoxic, nonirritant, nonsensitizing, and nonphototoxic properties make it an extremely useful substance. It blends well with any citrus oil, with various floral absolutes, and with most of the synthetic components available on the market. Neroli is sweet, honeyed, and somewhat metallic. It has a sharp, delicate aroma, with a pleasantly bitter top note; a floral-herbal, green body; and a floral, orange flower dryout. Commercial neroli oil is made in North Africa, France, Italy, and North America, the best oil coming from Tunisia.

In the hands of different perfumers, neroli can be heady or subtle, sophisticated or innocent, wanton or sweet. Pure neroli is described as being "prim and proper," but its more flamboyant expression is encouraged and colored heavily by the other scent materials with which it is mixed.

Neroli essential oil is also commonly used in aromatherapy and as a massage oil. It is thought to have antidepressant, sedative, antibacterial, and antispasmodic effects. In addition, neroli oil is used in food flavorings and is reputed to be one of the ingredients in the top-secret recipe for the Coca-Cola soft drink.

Well-known neroli fragrances:

Annick Goutal Néroli
Chloé Eau de Fleurs Neroli
4711 Eau de Cologne
Tom Ford Neroli Portofino
Guerlain Flora Nerolia
L'Occitane Notre Flore Neroli
Creed Neroli Sauvage
Atelier Cologne Grand Neroli Cologne Absolue
Diptyque L'Eau de Neroli
Czech & Speake Neroli
Castle Forbes Neroli
Atkinsons Scilly Neroli
Bronnley Lemon & Neroli
Carolina Herrera Neroli Boheme
Hermès Eau de Néroli Doré
Jo Malone Basil & Neroli
...and many others


Orange Blossom
Orange blossom is more indolic, deeper, sweeter, and warmer than neroli, but also delicate and fresh. Intoxicating and heady, it is a long-lasting odor, closely resembling the natural scent of fresh bitter orange blossoms. Its fragrance is not unlike that of jasmine (with which it shares some chemical components such as methyl anthranilate), somewhat less intensely floral but fresher. Orange blossom absolute is used in many different types of fragrances and especially in colognes, chypres, ambers, mixed floral bouquets, and heavy orientals. It beautifully complements all other citrusy notes and acts as a natural fixative for other components, allowing the original composition to last longer while keeping its true fragrance.

Orange blossom fragrances:

L'Artisan Fleur d'Oranger Harvest Edition or Seville À L'Aube
Jo Malone Orange Blossom
Prada Infusion de Fleurs d'Oranger
Le Labo Fleur D'Oranger 27, Neroli 36, and Tubereuse 40
Serge Lutens Fleurs D'Oranger
Yardley Orange Blossom
Jean Paul Gaultier Fleur du Mâle
Dior Fahrenheit 32


Petitgrain
Petitgrain, more similar to neroli than to orange blossom, is the most woody-herbaceous of the bitter orange tree materials and somewhat more bitter than the others except for bigarade. It has an overtly masculine edge and is often used in men's fragrances.

Fragrances with dominant petitgrain:

Miller Harris Le Petit Grain
Comme des Garçons Energy C Grapefruit
Dior Addict
Joe Malone Osmanthus Blossom
Mugler Cologne
Antonio Puig Depende del Color de las Roses
Hermès Eau d'Orange Douce
Azzaro Aqua Cèdre Blanc and Pour Homme Summer Edition 2013
Penhaligon Castile
Armani Prive Oranger Alhambra
Vera Wang for Men
G.F. Trumper Astor
Acqua di Parma Acqua Nobile Gelsomino and Blu Mediterraneo
Creed Silver Mountain Water
Dolce & Gabbana Velvet Bergamot


Bigarade
Bigarade, a blending of sweetness and the most pronounced bitterness, produces the characteristic and striking scent and flavor of marmalade.

Fragrances with a prominent bigarade note:

Frédéric Malle Cologne Bigarade or Bigarade Concentree
Creed Citrus Bigarrade
Nina Ricci Bigarade
Durance en Provence Bigarade Cashmere
Fragonard Bigarade Jasmin
L'Occitane en Provence Thé Vert & Bigarade
Parfums 137 Bigarade
 
Smelling Your Own Fragrance


"Watch it now, don't be smellin' yourself now while you out there, your smelf mite be irreconcilable, take over ya."


It is not really understood completely why we become used to smells. We notice how someone else's house smells, and we can easily detect unexpected or strange scents in our home. But we don't notice the way our own homes or our own clothes or bodies usually smell. Says Pamela Dalton, a cognitive psychologist who has researched scent memory and this phenomenon of 'nose blindness' for over 20 years, "It's actually a very robust phenomenon. It's why people go on vacation and come back and say, 'Oh, it's so musty in here - I'd better open some windows.'" It's probable that the house always smells like that, and they're just desensitized to it until being away for a period of time.

This phenomenon is known as sensory adaptation, and it's something we experience most intensely with smells. “That's not as true for any other sensory experience,” says Dalton. The closest comparison is hearing. If you're working near a construction site, for example, you can tune out the noise after a while. “But," she says, "If I ask you, ‘Do you hear that?' you can refocus that part of your brain. That's not so true with odor.”

In a similar way, we lose the perception of our cologne or aftershave. When an odor is first smelled, the scent receptors send a signal to the olfactory bulb in the brain's limbic system, an area associated with emotion, which determines how it will be processed and how one will feel and behave about that particular scent. But the nasal receptors essentially turn off after around two breaths, and perception of the scent - no matter how strong it is initially - starts to fade. Within ten minutes, perception of most smells has begun to decrease significantly. In one of Dalton's studies, subjects were given a pleasantly pine-scented air freshener for three weeks, and every week they became less sensitive to the odor. Although the freshener remained potent, the subjects would ask, "Are you sure it's still working?"

Scientific studies suggest that our inability to smell factors to which we are habitually exposed is actually an evolutionary advantage: becoming desensitized to them allows the individual to detect even the slightest change in their environment. The nose is 'hard-wired' to pick up signals that notify us of environmental changes that might jeopardize our comfort or safety. When your brain has perceived an odor to be nonthreatening (i.e. not representing rotten or poisonous food, smoke from a brush fire, or the approach of a predator - or, in more modern times, burning of food or a gas leak), the receptors for it switch off, because there is no recognized need to pay close attention to it. Conversely, such selectivity allows us to experience pleasure with less usual scents, such as those of bakeries or coffee shops

This raises a question about the longevity of a fragrance one is wearing. If you spray or rub it on in the moring, and it seems by evening as if it has disappeared, has it really, or have you just become used to it? The odds are that others would still be able to smell your scent, because it is less familiar to them. This phenomenon can also impact your reaction to a new bottle of your usual perfume. Dalton notes that the small changes that we detect in habitual scents are magnified by our noses – causing us to lose the actual scent, and instead to zero in on a seemingly huge change. And whatever the fragrance compound, each batch of perfume is unique. Environmental and other factors ensure that no two perfume batches will ever smell perfectly identical, despite an unchanged formula. To those not smelling the perfume every moment of every day, each batch does smell the same. But if you pair those small variances with a hypersensitive nose, you may begin to wonder: has the perfume changed? Has my skin changed? Likely, the answer is “no” to both questions. It is just the natural phenomenon of getting used to smells that allowed you to detect a slight difference.

Compounding this complexity, especially for perfumers, is the fact that various scents have differing - and sometimes mixed - trigger strengths and temporal effects on the receptors. For example one widely used, naturally occurring factor which smells of violets, beta-ionone, is added to fragrances to boost the overall fragrance strength and to bond floral note to woody ones. But it also has a ability to temporarily desensitize the nose receptors of individuals with a certain mutation in the DNA sequence of an odorant receptor gene.

There are, of course, different strengths of fragrance formulations and compounds, and they last for differing lengths of time. Each individual scent molecule has its own unique density, which affects its perceptual lifespan. In addition, different skin types affect how long a given fragrance lasts. If you want to get a clear impression about how long your fragrance actually lasts, spray or drip it on a tissue or a piece of fabric and leave it in another room. Visit it after a few hours, and you will be able to experience the same scent strength that other people experience when they encounter you wearing that fragrance after the same amount of time.


Solutions to Rejuvenate the Sense of Smell

According to Dalton, taking a break from a fragrance and then returning to it will sometimes restore its perception, much like the previous description of going away from home on vacation. If you have one favorite fragrance, it is recommended that you take a 2-3 week break from it every now and then, perhaps wearing no fragrance at all. Or if you like several fragrances, you can try alternating them every other week or two. This can prevent your nose from becoming too accustomed to each scent. Another approach that sometimes works is to change to an ancillary body product (such as body lotion, shower oil or gel, etc.) in your usual fragrance's range. Since these are formulated slightly differently from the one you regularly use, they may allow you to pick up the scent perception again. In addition, there are helpful charts/guides online and in department stores that can guide you to a similar but slightly different fragrance, possibly in the same family, that you might enjoy until you can subsequently reacquaint yourself with your usual product.

Another approach is to use a traditional, old-fashioned cologne rather than a more modern one. While the older ones tended to be more complex and evolved while on the skin, the newer 'linear' ones do not change; they smell the same as time passes, so they more quickly become part of the 'constant environement.'

And to make the odor receptors more sensitive temporarily, exercise enough to increase your heart rate; perfumers have been known to run up and down stairs before testing a fragrance with their nose.

It also helps to consciously and simply pay close attention to smells. According to Dalton, worrying or being overly concerned about smells actually seems to make the nose more sensitive. In a study, she expose three groups of people to the same scent. She told one group the smell was a 'rainforest exract,' a second group that it was just a standard scent used frequently in her lab, and the third group that it was a potent industrial solvent. The 'rainforest extract' group adapted to the smell fastest, while the group that was told that it was a solvent - that is, something negative - were slowest to adapt to it. So it seems that the more you focus on smelling - and perhaps paying close attention to your cologne and aftershave qualities - the more perceptive your nose will become.
 
Smelling Your Own Fragrance


"Watch it now, don't be smellin' yourself now while you out there, your smelf mite be irreconcilable, take over ya."


It is not really understood completely why we become used to smells. We notice how someone else's house smells, and we can easily detect unexpected or strange scents in our home. But we don't notice the way our own homes or our own clothes or bodies usually smell. Says Pamela Dalton, a cognitive psychologist who has researched scent memory and this phenomenon of 'nose blindness' for over 20 years, "It's actually a very robust phenomenon. It's why people go on vacation and come back and say, 'Oh, it's so musty in here - I'd better open some windows.'" It's probable that the house always smells like that, and they're just desensitized to it until being away for a period of time.

This phenomenon is known as sensory adaptation, and it's something we experience most intensely with smells. “That's not as true for any other sensory experience,” says Dalton. The closest comparison is hearing. If you're working near a construction site, for example, you can tune out the noise after a while. “But," she says, "If I ask you, ‘Do you hear that?' you can refocus that part of your brain. That's not so true with odor.”

In a similar way, we lose the perception of our cologne or aftershave. When an odor is first smelled, the scent receptors send a signal to the olfactory bulb in the brain's limbic system, an area associated with emotion, which determines how it will be processed and how one will feel and behave about that particular scent. But the nasal receptors essentially turn off after around two breaths, and perception of the scent - no matter how strong it is initially - starts to fade. Within ten minutes, perception of most smells has begun to decrease significantly. In one of Dalton's studies, subjects were given a pleasantly pine-scented air freshener for three weeks, and every week they became less sensitive to the odor. Although the freshener remained potent, the subjects would ask, "Are you sure it's still working?"

Scientific studies suggest that our inability to smell factors to which we are habitually exposed is actually an evolutionary advantage: becoming desensitized to them allows the individual to detect even the slightest change in their environment. The nose is 'hard-wired' to pick up signals that notify us of environmental changes that might jeopardize our comfort or safety. When your brain has perceived an odor to be nonthreatening (i.e. not representing rotten or poisonous food, smoke from a brush fire, or the approach of a predator - or, in more modern times, burning of food or a gas leak), the receptors for it switch off, because there is no recognized need to pay close attention to it. Conversely, such selectivity allows us to experience pleasure with less usual scents, such as those of bakeries or coffee shops

This raises a question about the longevity of a fragrance one is wearing. If you spray or rub it on in the moring, and it seems by evening as if it has disappeared, has it really, or have you just become used to it? The odds are that others would still be able to smell your scent, because it is less familiar to them. This phenomenon can also impact your reaction to a new bottle of your usual perfume. Dalton notes that the small changes that we detect in habitual scents are magnified by our noses – causing us to lose the actual scent, and instead to zero in on a seemingly huge change. And whatever the fragrance compound, each batch of perfume is unique. Environmental and other factors ensure that no two perfume batches will ever smell perfectly identical, despite an unchanged formula. To those not smelling the perfume every moment of every day, each batch does smell the same. But if you pair those small variances with a hypersensitive nose, you may begin to wonder: has the perfume changed? Has my skin changed? Likely, the answer is “no” to both questions. It is just the natural phenomenon of getting used to smells that allowed you to detect a slight difference.

Compounding this complexity, especially for perfumers, is the fact that various scents have differing - and sometimes mixed - trigger strengths and temporal effects on the receptors. For example one widely used, naturally occurring factor which smells of violets, beta-ionone, is added to fragrances to boost the overall fragrance strength and to bond floral note to woody ones. But it also has a ability to temporarily desensitize the nose receptors of individuals with a certain mutation in the DNA sequence of an odorant receptor gene.

There are, of course, different strengths of fragrance formulations and compounds, and they last for differing lengths of time. Each individual scent molecule has its own unique density, which affects its perceptual lifespan. In addition, different skin types affect how long a given fragrance lasts. If you want to get a clear impression about how long your fragrance actually lasts, spray or drip it on a tissue or a piece of fabric and leave it in another room. Visit it after a few hours, and you will be able to experience the same scent strength that other people experience when they encounter you wearing that fragrance after the same amount of time.


Solutions to Rejuvenate the Sense of Smell

According to Dalton, taking a break from a fragrance and then returning to it will sometimes restore its perception, much like the previous description of going away from home on vacation. If you have one favorite fragrance, it is recommended that you take a 2-3 week break from it every now and then, perhaps wearing no fragrance at all. Or if you like several fragrances, you can try alternating them every other week or two. This can prevent your nose from becoming too accustomed to each scent. Another approach that sometimes works is to change to an ancillary body product (such as body lotion, shower oil or gel, etc.) in your usual fragrance's range. Since these are formulated slightly differently from the one you regularly use, they may allow you to pick up the scent perception again. In addition, there are helpful charts/guides online and in department stores that can guide you to a similar but slightly different fragrance, possibly in the same family, that you might enjoy until you can subsequently reacquaint yourself with your usual product.

Another approach is to use a traditional, old-fashioned cologne rather than a more modern one. While the older ones tended to be more complex and evolved while on the skin, the newer 'linear' ones do not change; they smell the same as time passes, so they more quickly become part of the 'constant environement.'

And to make the odor receptors more sensitive temporarily, exercise enough to increase your heart rate; perfumers have been known to run up and down stairs before testing a fragrance with their nose.

It also helps to consciously and simply pay close attention to smells. According to Dalton, worrying or being overly concerned about smells actually seems to make the nose more sensitive. In a study, she expose three groups of people to the same scent. She told one group the smell was a 'rainforest exract,' a second group that it was just a standard scent used frequently in her lab, and the third group that it was a potent industrial solvent. The 'rainforest extract' group adapted to the smell fastest, while the group that was told that it was a solvent - that is, something negative - were slowest to adapt to it. So it seems that the more you focus on smelling - and perhaps paying close attention to your cologne and aftershave qualities - the more perceptive your nose will become.

A very interesting write up, thank you.
 
Songs About (or Mentioning) Smell

There have been many songs whose lyrics contain words about fragrance or smells. Here is just a quick list of some of them, edited a little to avoid offending.

Smells Like Teen Spirit - Nirvana
I Think I Smell a Rat - The White Stripes
That Smell - Lynyrd Skynyrd
Stop and Smell the Roses - Mac Davis
Creepy Smell - Melvins
Mine Smell Like Honey - R.E.M.
Smell the Funk - Buddy Guy
Perfume - Sparks
I Smell a Rat - Howlin' Wolf (or Buddy Guy)
Smell Your Way Through the Day - The Wiggles
I Smell Trouble - Buddy Guy
Wake Up and Smell the Coffee - The Cranberries
Smells Like... - Alien Sex Fiend
The Smell of Money - Todd Rundgren (or UFO)
Smell of Desire - Enigma
Smells Like Happiness - The Hidden Cameras
Rain Smell - Baths
Can U Smell - Young Jeezy
Smell It on Me - 2 Chainz, Yukmouth, Gudda Gudda
I Smell Trouble - Johnny Winter
Hippy Smell - Ween
I Smell Smoke - Johnny Winter
Stop and Take the Time to Smell the Roses - Ringo Starr
Smell the Roses - Natasha Bedingfield
You Smell So Good - Rammstein
The Smell of Victory - Nobodys
Smell the Magic - L7
The Smell of Rain - Mortiis
Hey Man, Smell My Finger - George Clinton
Wake Up and Smell the Carcass - Carcass
What's That Smell? - Bitch & Animal
Smell of Female - The Cramps
Smell of Our Own - The Hidden Cameras
Sweet Smell of Success - Jim Capaldi
The Roar of the Greasepaint, The Smell of the Crowd - Herbie Mann
Smell the Flowers - Jerry Reed
Stop and Smell the Roses - Sally Harmon
Sweet Smell of Success and Easy Living - Chico Hamilton
Smell the Color 9 - Chris Rice
What Do You Smell Like? - Jeff Johnson
Smell No Evil - Ookla the Mok
I Smell Smoke - Michael Burks
Dead Skunk - Loudon Wainwright III
Summer Breeze – Isley Brothers
Mirizi O Kosmos Giasemi (The World Is Fragrant With Jasmine) – Maria Dimitriadi
Miss Perfumado – Cesária Évora
Profumo – Gianna Nannini
Perfume – Sparks (or Britney Spears)
Smells Like Happiness – Hidden Cameras
I Love Your Smell – Billy Jenkins with the Blues Collective
What's That Smells Like Fish? – Blind Boy Fuller
Lemon Disinfectant – Lorraine Bowen
Make Me Stinked – Flamenco a Go-Go
A Little Bit Of Soap - Yvonne Carroll
Dis Flower - Laverne Hutcherson
Roses - Outlast
Germ Free Adolescence - X-Ray Spex
Wearing Your Smell - Motor psycho
Senses Working Overtime - XTC
Dos Gardenias - Ibrahim Ferrer
 
Musk


Strictly defined, natural musk is a secretion from the abdominal apocrine glands (musk sacs) of the Asian musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), a very small, unhorned but fanged deer living primarily in Pakistan, India, Tibet, China, Mongolia, and Siberia.

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The secretion is produced only by the mature male deer during the December-January rutting season. In the past, the granular pods of musk obtained from the sacs were dried in the sun or on hot stones, or were dissolved in hot oil. The resulting black 'musk grain' was used in an alcoholic dilution (tincture). In its pure form, the dried secretion has a sharp and repulsive animalic smell, but it becomes richer, deeper, warm, and sweet in the diluted tincture.

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The word musk originates from the Sanskrit term for 'testicle.' Used since antiquity in the perfume industry, musk has in fragrance mixes a pungent animalic smell that provides a warm, sensual note. The primary molecule producing the scent is muscone (3-methylcyclopentadecanone).

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Musk also has strong fixative properties, balancing and extending the life of compounds without adding heaviness. It makes a fragrance formula have a cleaner, more pure tone and gives it liveliness. The cost of natural musk has always been very high, due to the fact that the sacrifice of up to 50 deer was required to produce a kilogram of musk. The deer were almost killed to extinction, and in 1979 they became protected by an international trade convention. Today, the limited harvest of legally obtained natural musk is used almost exclusively as a component in traditional east Asian medicines. However, natural musk is extremely stable in storage over time, and very small amounts of it are still available for commercial use, although much of what is offered for sale to the public is counterfeit - actually synthetic.

Natural musk has been largely replaced now by more ethical and much less expensive synthetic musks, which usually are called "white musk." Musk Bauer, the first synthetic musk, was discovered in 1888, when Albert Bauer, while searching for new explosive materials, noticed that the reaction of trinitrotoluene (TNT) and tert-butyl halides produced a very pleasant odor. In 1894, Bauer developed musk ketone, which was reputed to resemble natural musk fairly closely and was used for decades in many perfumes.

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Other 'nitro musks,' all with a warm, powdery scent with an ambery/animalic overly, include musk xylol, musk Tibetene, musk ambrette, and moskene. These became especially popular, including as single-note musk fragrances, during the Woodstock 'back-to-nature' hippie days of the 1960s and 1970s. Nitro musks began to fall out of favor in the 1980s due to the hazards associated with their production and their lack of stability. New families of synthetic musks, the macrocyclics (habanolide, thibetolide, globalide, velvione) and polycyclics (phantolide, celestolide, traesolide, tonalide, galaxolide), subsequently were developed. And more recently, more diverse musk variants, with an extremely wide range of scent profiles, have been produced, including helvetolide, nirvanolide, and muscenone. The first true combination accord, developed for Emporio Armani White for Her by Alberto Morillas, was created in 2001. The neurologic and dermatologic toxicity and demonstrated carcinogenic properties of the aromatic nitro musks and polycyclic musk compounds resulted finally in banning or significant reduction of their use in most countries. Macrocyclic or linear musk compounds still are generally considered to be safer and are most commonly used now.

The overall character of synthetic musks ranges from erotic and dark (termed 'dirty' or even 'skanky') to fresh and light (called 'clean'). It can be balmy, sweet, spicy, resinous, and powdery or animalic, fig-like, leathery, dry, nutty, and woody, but always with a common tone of warmth, sweetness, and sensuality. Popular with perfumers and versatile, musks are used very widely, anchoring other notes in around 99% of fine fragrances, especially the 'clean' musks that are present in the majority of the products. The 'clean' ones have even used for decades in laundry detergents and fabric softeners, in which they are extremely hydrophobic (and thus don't wash off clothes). In a few perfume cases, such as in Chanel No. 5, Narciso for Her, and Sarah Jessica Parker Lovely, musks manage to smell both 'dirty' and 'clean.' The versatility of musk is demonstrated by its use also in insect repellants, toothpastes, fruit flavorings, chocolates, hard and soft candy, and chewing gum.

In more recent times, the term 'musk' in perfumery refers not only to the specific ingredient, but also to the simulation of the natural musk scent. This is true especially with the drydown phase of a perfume, when the musk tone becomes most prominent. Fine fragrance compositions usually include a cocktail of different musk scents, due to the fact that anosmia to musks (inability to smell them) is very widespread among perfumers, nearly as common as anosmia to the violet notes of beta-ionones. This is partially because the very large size of the musk molecules prevents their binding to nasal receptors, and partly it is due to genetic factors. Perfumers get around this problem by using a range of various musk components of differing molecular weights.

In contrast, one reason for the interesting and prevalent 'love or hate' human response to musk is that some odor perception genetic phenotypes actually produce specific hyperosmias (heightened odor perception), including one to musk, sometimes making the scent almost intolerable. This seems to be an autosomal recessive trait in families. And generally, women seem to have lower thresholds for perceiving musk, smelling it when men are unable to do so.


Musk Families

In perfumery, musk scents can be divided into fairly well definied families, of which White Musk is by far the most common. It was first created to provide a sensory image of 'fresh cotton and linen.' White Musk is often used alone, giving its name to the product, such as the famous Jovan White Musk and The Body Shop's White Musk. The latter's components include galaxolide, the most ubiquitous of the synthetic musks in both fine fragrances and functional products (especially fabric softeners), which gives a clean but flowery-woody, sweet, and powdery tone. Globalide, also called habanolide, a metallic smelling, fresh, radiant musk, is also used in White Musk compositions, sometimes coupled with helvetolide. It is prominent in Jennifer Lopez Glow, Thierry Mugler Cologne, Serge Lutens Clair de Musc, and Trish McEvoy #9 Blackberry Musk.

Another prominent family is Egyptian Musk. This actually does not originate in Egypt, but is named because of its predominant tone. It is a musk blend in which the clean, sensual, scrubbed-skin character is dominant. The 'laundry day' feel of white musk is still present, but in general the effect is subtler, much less shrill. Auric Blends Egyptian Goddess is an example of a plain, unadulterated Egyptian Musk with no other tonalities. Other examples in which Egyptian Musk is present include Narciso Rodriguez Musk for Her, Ava Luxe Pearl Musk, and fragrance lines from Dawn Spencer Hurwitz and Sonoma Scent Studio.

Other defined musk families include African Musk (essentially just variations of Egyptian musk despite the name, soft, clean, and inoffensive, with an added inclusion of sweet vanilla); Red Musk (similar to white musk but with an incense note); Black Musk (much like the Red Musk concept, but with a slightly dirty, woody undertone); Blue Musk (close to African Musk, with a sweeter tone); China Musk (bright and refreshing, combining the metallic feel of white musks with the smoothness of Egyptian Musk); Oriental Musk (the same as China Musk but with more of a powdery underlay and a jasmine inclusion); Tunisian Musk (a sweeter variation of the Egyptian type); Turkish Musk (somewhat more sophisticated and drier than white or African Musks, with dark tarry topnotes suggesting black tea and with leather notes); Tibetan or Himalayan Musk (warm and sweet, sometimes layered with other fragrances to make them softer); and Nude Musk (intended to smell erotic, "like skin but better," examples being Creative Scentualisation Perfect Veil, Sonoma Scent Studio Opal, and Bonne Belle Skin Musk). There are also individual 'outrider' musk variants that have unusual qualities and do not fit easily into a family.


Musky odorants as a group also include glandular secretions from other animals, such as civets, musk shrews, musk ducks, musk oxen, musk beetles, musk turtles, and even alligators. Confusing the picture is a reference by some people to castoreum from muskrats and beavers as a musk. In addition, some plant substances, such as ambrette seed, galbanum, angelica root, musk flower, and muskwood, produce compounds that have very similar characters, and these have been used quite successfully in commercial musky fragrances such as Malle Angeliques Sous la Pluie, Chanel Les Exclusifs No. 18, and Annick Goutal Musc Nomade.

It has been reported that techniques have been developed for extracting the natural musk from deer without harming them, which theoretically could bring back its use in perfumes. However, meanwhile, new synthetic musks are being created each year, producing fourth or even fifth generation families that are being incorporated into commercial products. They are targeted to be nontoxic and biodegradable, chemically stable, and low in production costs. A few of these also display subtle new variations in the musk scent profile.
 
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